The Remaining Signs of Past Centuries

What it is

Also called the Chronology of Ancient Nations, this is Al-Biruni's earliest major work, written around the year 1000 at the court of the ruler Qabus. It compares the calendars, eras and festivals of Persians, Greeks, Jews, Christians, Sogdians, Khwarazmians and Muslims. The image shown is from a richly illustrated manuscript copy made later by the artist Ibn al-Kutbi.

Why it matters

The book became a standard reference on the history of Muslim lands for centuries. It shows Al-Biruni's comparative, source-critical method of studying different cultures side by side. The later illustrated manuscript, made for Mongol-era Ilkhanid patrons, reveals how Persian artists and rulers used his text to explore religions beyond Islam.

Look closer

• Why might a 14th-century artist choose to illustrate episodes from many different religions?
• What does the manuscript's artistic style tell you about the mixing of cultures after the Mongol invasions?
• How might illustrations change how later readers understood Al-Biruni's original ideas?