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Primary sourceBook1675-1677 (published 1677)

Tractatus Politicus

Benedictus de Spinoza · 1675-1677 (published 1677)

Spinoza's last, unfinished work analysing monarchy, aristocracy and democracy, broken off at his death in 1677.

Spinoza's last, unfinished analysis of forms of government, broken off by his death.

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Title page of a printed book showing the heading TRACTATUS POLITICUS in large capital letters, followed by a long Latin subtitle in smaller italic and roman type. Faded text of a previous page shows through the paper.
Benedictus de Spinoza, Tractatus Politicus, in Opera Posthuma, 1677.

About this source

What it is

This is the final, incomplete political treatise of Benedictus de Spinoza, written between 1675 and 1677 and published posthumously that year. It examines monarchy, aristocracy and democracy as forms of government, discussing how each should be organised to avoid falling into tyranny.

Why it matters

Unlike Aristotle, whom he echoes in structure, Spinoza avoided declaring any one government the best, and in his final chapter argued that democracy means freedom for all under natural law rather than simple majority rule. The work also references Niccolò Machiavelli's writing on princes and tyranny. It breaks off mid-sentence in the chapter on democracy, cut short by Spinoza's death, making it a document of both his political thought and its abrupt, unfinished ending.

Look closer

  • Why might an unfinished work still be valuable to historians and philosophers?
  • What does the treatise's structure, moving through monarchy, aristocracy and democracy, tell you about how Spinoza approached politics?
  • What questions can never be answered because the book stops before finishing?

This book is part of the curated material that grounds the AI version of Baruch Spinoza on Humy.ai — when students ask about related events, the AI can quote it and cite it.

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Title page of Spinoza's Ethica in Latin. Large capital letters read ETHICA, followed by 'Ordine Geometrico demonstrata, ET In quinque Partes distincta, in quibus agitur', then a list of five parts numbered I to V with Latin titles.Book

Primary source

Ethics

Benedictus de Spinoza · 1677 (written 1661-1675)

Title page of the Tractatus Theologico-Politicus, printed in black letter-style serif type with a handwritten inscription 'Auctore Benedicto de Spinoza' and an ornamental woodcut at the bottom, imprint reading Hamburgi, Apud Henricum Kuhrabt, 1670.Book

Primary source

Tractatus Theologico-Politicus

Benedictus de Spinoza · 1670

Oil painting of a man with long dark curly hair, wearing a dark coat and a large white collar, against a dark brown background. He looks toward the viewer with a calm expression.Painting

Primary source

Portrait of Benedictus de Spinoza

Unknown · c. 1665

Title page of a book. At top: 'B. D. S.' Large capitals below read 'OPERA POSTHUMA,' followed by italic Latin text 'Quorum series post Praefationem exhibetur.' A small woodcut ornament of fruit and ribbons sits in the middle, and at the bottom is the date 'MDCLXXVII' written as 'CIO IC CLXXVII' style Roman numerals.Book

Primary source

Opera Posthuma

Benedictus de Spinoza · 1677

Title page of a 1677 book in Latin. Large capitals read EPISTOLAE, followed by DOCTORUM QUORUNDAM VIRORUM, AD B. D. S. ET AUCTORIS RESPONSIONES, and a line about elucidating other works. Faded text from another page shows through in the background.Letter

Primary source

Epistolae, Correspondence of Benedict de Spinoza

Benedictus de Spinoza · 1661-1676, published 1677

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